Language and representation notes

Lexical Asymmetry - An imbalance in the meanings of two evidently matching words. For example, man and woman should have opposite meanings but should be equal. However, if you look up the words 'manly' and 'womanly' in the dictionary they actually have very different meanings.

Semantic Derogation - The negative meanings associated with words. For example, 'spastic','faggot','gypo'. Muriel Schulz in her'the Semantic Derogation of Women': "terms of endearment (for women)... often become acquainted with a degraded, shameful profession."

Semantic Reclamation - This is when a word that originally carried negative connotations has been 'flipped on it's head' and is now used in a positive way. For example, 'nigger' and 'bitch'.

Pejoration and Amelioration - When a word's meaning changes overtime. Pejoration - Semantics move from positive to negative, for example, 'gay'. Amelioration - Semantics move from negative to positive. For example, 'cute'.

Semantic Over-representation - A fairly simple idea that just means there are many more words to describe a particular concept or group, than their equivalent. For example, there are a lot more words to describe sexually active females than males.

Lexical Gaps - When there are no equivalents for certain terms. For example, 'cupcake' or 'stud'.

Marked and unmarked terms
Marked - 'Lady Doctor', 'Male Nurse'
Unmarked - 'Stallion'

Generic Terms and Pronouns - The generic use of terms or pronouns used to describe a group as a collective, even when there is a variety of people. For example, as a generation we are referred to as 'mankind'.

Patronizing and Demeaning Usages - 'Alright Darling' 'Cheer up, love'

Dictionary Research

Dictionary Research

Spinster:

The word ‘spinster’ originates from the 13^th century when it was used to literally describe a women who spun yarn. However, in the early 1600s it was denoted as a term for an unmarried women. In today’s day and age, a ‘spinster’ is rarely heard of but is most commonly known as a woman of age, who should be but is not yet married. In this sense, the word spinster has negative connotations, as when the word’s meaning was adapted in the 17^th century, women were expected to be married at a very young age, so being old and unmarried was thrown upon. This is very likely to be because society in 17^th century was very pro-religion and marriage was seen as a very significant part of a religious lifestyle. As a result this meaning has carried on through time and to be called a ‘spinster’ is likely to offend a woman. This word seems to follow a long-existing pattern of undesirable connotations of aimed at women who do not live the ‘correct’ lifestyle that is expected of them.

Other associations or meanings for ‘spinster’:

A woman (or, rarely, a man) who spins, especially one who practises spinning as a regular occupation.

A spider, or other insect that spins.

Bachelor:

The word ‘bachelor’ first crossed into the English language around the 14^th century when the word was used to describe low-ranking knights. Later on, during the Victorian period is when the word’s meaning evolved to mean an unmarried man. The connotations associated with the word bachelor are majority positive, as a ‘bachelor’ is most commonly known as a ‘free’ man, living the desired life of most men.

Other associations or meanings for ‘bachelor’:

It is often used to label the lowest level of university degrees.

Mistress:

The word ‘mistress’ originated from centuries ago and its original meaning was to signify the authority of a particular women, demonstrating that she has more power than an ordinary women. As time went on it was becoming much more common for the word ‘mistress’ to be used as reference to a woman whom was having regular sex with a married man. However, although that meaning is still well known in today’s society, I believe it is more common for ‘mistress’ to still be associated with a women of power, for example, a headmistress.

Master:

The word ‘master’ is a very old term. Originally it was only associated with men and its meaning has always been a label of a person who obtains power. Over time its associations have been altered and in more recent times, the word ‘master’ is often used to also refer to women. However, in the 21^st century this word will always give the impression that a person is referring to a male rather than a female.

Language Research, Secondary

Sarah Mills

She believed it is widely accepted that man and women do talk differently; men are socialised into a competitive style of discourse, whilst women are socialised with a more cooperative style of speech. Sarah Mills underwent an investigation of lexical pairs and how they are socially unequal to one another. In addition, she did extended study into the correlation between females and their stereotypically polite manner, in comparison to males and their stereotypical sense of impoliteness. She also measured whether the stereotypical politeness used was inherited. Fundamentally she focused greatly on the way in which certain genders speak and the inherited stereotypes in speech among genders.

Deborah Cameron

‘The Theory of Verbal Hygiene’

Deborah Cameron believes that no matter what, men and women face specific, stereotypical expectations about the appropriate mode of speech for their gender. The way that women conduct themselves has proved to be very significant in many cultures; women have been instructed in a ‘proper’ way to talk just as they have been instructed in a ‘proper’ way to dress. This acceptance of a “proper” speech style, Deborah Cameron describes (in her 1995 book of the same name) as “verbal hygiene”.

Deborah Cameron most certainly does not condemn verbal hygiene, as misguided. She finds specific examples of verbal hygiene in the regulation of '"style" by editors, the teaching of English grammar in schools, politically correct language and the advice to women on how they can speak more effectively. In each case Deborah Cameron claims that verbal hygiene is a way to make sense of language, and that it also represents a symbolic attempt to impose order on the social world.

Muriel Schultz

Derogation

Schulz argues that there are a significant amount of slang words used to describe women, obtaining negative connotations. She goes on to argue that the reason for this is because men fear women's attitudes and that these slang insults aimed at women, said by men are the only outlet men have. Schulz argues that words that were once used in a nice and gentlemanly way have changed and have become rude and slanderous towards women, this is derogation in action. The main issue Schulz addresses is that the language we use today will be carried on through to the next generation. In addition, if society continues to use these slang words in order to insult women then a new generation will start to use them and it creates a vicious cycle that will continue unless a generation decides to stop using this part of language.

 

Dominance theory

This is the theory that in mixed-sex conversations men are more likely to interrupt than women. It uses a fairly old study of a small sample of conversations, recorded by Don Zimmerman and Candace West at the Santa Barbara campus of the University of California in 1975. The subjects of the recording were white, middle class and under 35. Zimmerman and West produce in evidence 31 segments of conversation. They report that in 11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions, but women only two. As Geoffrey Beattie, of Sheffield University, points out (writing in New Scientist magazine in 1982): "The problem with this is that you might simply have one very voluble man in the study which has a disproportionate effect on the total." From their small (possibly unrepresentative) sample Zimmerman and West conclude that, since men interrupt more often, then they are dominating or attempting to do so.